英文论文【通用9篇】
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英文论文优秀范文模板 篇一
Beginning
l In this paper, we focus on the need for
l This paper proceeds as follow.
l The structure of the paper is as follows.
l In this paper, we shall first briefly introduce fuzzy sets and related c
oncepts
l To begin with we will provide a brief background on the
Introduction
l This will be followed by a description of the fuzzy nature of the proble
m and a detailed presentation of how the required membership functions are def
ined.
l Details on __ and __ are discussed in later sections.
l In the next section, after a statement of the basic problem, various sit
uations involving possibility knowledge are investigated: first, an entirely p
ossibility model is proposed; then the cases of a fuzzy service time with stoc
hastic arrivals and non‑fuzzy service rule is studied; lastly, fuzzy ser
vice rule are considered.
Review
l This review is followed by an introduction.
l A brief summary of some of the relevant concepts in ___ and ___ is prese
nted in Section 2.
l In the next section a brief view of the .... is given.
l In the next section, a short review of ... is given with special regard
to ...
l Section 2 reviews relevant research related to __.
l Section briefly surveys the motivation for a methodology of action,
while looks at the difficulties posed by the complexity of systems and out
lines the need for development of possibility methods.
Body
l Section 1 defines the notion of robustness, and argues for its importanc
l Section 1 devoted to the basic aspects of the FLC decision‑making
logic.
l Section 2 gives the background of the problem which includes ___
l Section 2 discusses some problems with and approaches to, natural langua
ge understanding.
l Section 2 explains how flexibility which often ... can be expressed in t
erms of fuzzy time‑window
l Section 3 discusses the aspects of fuzzy set theory that are used in the
...
l Section 3 describes the system itself in a general way, including the ..
and also discusses how to evaluate system performance.
l Section 3 describes a new measure of __.
l Section 3 demonstrates the use of fuzzy possibility theory in the analys
is of __.
l Section 3 is a fine description of fuzzy formulation of human decision.
l Section 3, is developed to the modeling and processing of fuzzy decision
rules
l The main idea of the FLC is described in Section 3 while Section 4 descr
ibes the __ strategies.
l Section 3 and 4 show experimental studies for verifying the proposed mod
el.
l Section 4 discusses a previous fuzzy set‑based approach to cost va
riance investigation.
l Section 4 gives a specific example of ___.
l Section 4 is the experimental study to make a fuzzy model of memory proc
ess.
l Section 4 contains a discussion of the implication of the results of Sec
tion 2 and 3.
l Section 4 applies this fuzzy measure to the analysis of __ and illustrat
e its use on experimental data.
l Section 5 presents the primary results of the paper: a fuzzy set model .
l Section 5 contains some conclusions plus some ideas for further work.
l Section 6 illustrate the model with an example.
l Various ways of fuzzification and the reasons for their choice are discu
ssed very briefly in Section 2.
l In Sectio n 2 are presented the block diagram expression of a whole model
of human DM system
l In Section 2 we shall list a collection of basic assumptions which a ...
scheme must satisfy.
l In Section 2 of this paper, we present representation and uniqueness the
orems for the fundamental measurement of fuzziness when the domain of discours
e is order‑dense.
l In Section 3, we describe the preliminary results of an empirical study
currently in progress to verify the measurement model and to construct members
hip functions.
l In Section 5 is analyzed the inference process through the two kinds of
inference experiments...
This Section
l In this section, the characteristics and environment under which MRP is
designed are described.
l We will provide in this section basic terminologies and notations which
are necessary for the understanding of subsequent results.
Next Section
l The next section describes the mathematics that goes into the computer i
mplementation of such fuzzy logic statements.
l However, it is cumbersome for this purpose and in practical applications
the formulae were rearranged and simplified as discussed in the next section.
l The three components will be described in the next two section, and an e
xample of __ analysis of a computer information system will then illustrate th
eir use.
l We can interpret the results of Experiments I and II as in the following
sections.
l The next section summarizes the method in a from that is useful for argu
ments based on __
Summary
l This paper concludes with a discussion of future research consideration
in section 5.
l Section 5 summarizes the results of this investigation.
l Section 5 gives the conclusions and future directions of research.
l Section 7 provides a summary and a discussion of some extensions of the
paper.
l Finally, conclusions and future work are summarized
l The basic questions posed above are then discussed and conclusions are d
rawn.
l Section 7 is the conclusion of the paper.
Chapter 0. Abstract
l A basic problem in the design of __ is presented by the choice of a __ r
ate for the measurement of experimental variables.
l This paper examines a new measure of __ in __ based on fuzzy mathematics
which overcomes the difficulties found in other __ measures.
l This paper describes a system for the analysis of the __.
l The method involves the construction of __ from fuzzy relations.
l The procedure is useful in analyzing how groups reach a decision.
l The technique used is to employ a newly developed and versatile __ algor
ithms.
l The usefulness of __ is also considered.
l A brief methodology used in __ is discussed.
l The analysis is useful in __ and __ problem.
l A model is developed for a __ analysis using fuzzy matrices.
l Algorithms to combine these estimates and produce a __ are presented and
justified.
l The use of the method is discussed and an example is given.
l Results of an experimental applications of this __ analysis procedure ar
e given to illustrate the proposed technique.
l This paper analyses problems in
l This paper outlines the functions carried out by ...
l This paper includes an illustration of the ...
l This paper provides an overview and information useful for approaching
l Emphasis is placed on the construction of a criterion function by which
the __ in achieving a hierarchical system of objectives are evaluated.
l The main emphasis is placed on the problem of __
l Our proposed model is verified through experimental study.
l The experimental results reveal interesting examples of fuzzy phases of
: __,__
l The compatibility of a project in terms of cost, and __ are likewise rep
resented by linguistic variables.
l A didactic example is included to illustrate the computational procedure
Chapter 1. Introduction
Time
l Over the course of the past 30 years, .. has emerged form intuitive
l Technological revolutions have recently hit the industrial world
l The advent of ... systems for has had a significant impact on the
l The development of ... is explored
l During the past decade, the theory of fuzzy sets has developed in a vari
ety of directions,
l The concept of __ was investigated quite intensively in recent years
l There has been a turning point in ... methodology in accordance with the
advent of ...
l A major concern in ... today is to continue to improve...
l A __ is a latecomer in the part representation arena.
l At the time of this writing, there is still no standard way of __
l Although a lot of effort is being spent on improving these weaknesses, t
he efficient and effective method has yet to be developed.
l The pioneer work can be traced to __ [1965].
l To date, none of the methods developed is perfect and all are far from
ready to be used in commercial systems.
Objective / Goal / Purpose
l The purpose of the inference engine can be outlined as follows:
l The ultimate goal of the __ system is to allow the non‑experts to
utilize the existing knowledge in the area of manual handling of loads, and to
provide intelligent, computer‑aided instruction for ___.
l The paper concerns the development of a __
l The scope of this research lies in
l The main theme of the paper is the application of rule‑based decis
ion making.
l These objectives are to be met with such thoroughness and confidence as
to permit ...
l The objectives of the ... operations study are as follows:
l The primary purpose/consideration/objective of
l The ultimate goal of this concept is to provide
l The main objective of such a ... system is to
l The aim of this paper is to provide methods to construct such probabilit
y distribution.
l In order to achieve these objectives, an __ must meet the following requi
rements:
l In order to take advantage of their similarity
l more research is still required before final goal of ... can be complete
l In this trial, the objective is to generate...
l for the sake of concentrating on ... research issues
l A major goal of this report is to extend the utilization of a recently d
eveloped procedure for the __.
l For an illustrative purpose, four well‑known OR problems are studi
ed in presence of fuzzy data: __.
l A major thrust of the paper is to discuss approaches and strategies for
structuring ..methods
l This illustration points out the need to specify
l The ultimate goal is both descriptive and prescriptive.
l Chapter 2. Literature Review
l A wealth of information is to be found in the statistics liter ature, for
example, regarding __
l A considerable amount of research has been done .. during the last decad
l A great number of studies report on the treatment of uncertainties assoc
iated with __.
l There is considerable amount of literature on planning
l However, these studies do not provide much attention to undertainty in x
l Since then, the subject has been extensively explored and it is still un
der investigation as well in methodological aspects as in concrete application
l Many research studies have been carried out on this topic.
l Problem of __ draw recently more and more attention of system analysis.
l Attempts to resolve this dilemma have resulted in the development of
l Many complex processes unfortunately, do not yield to this design proced
ure and have, therefore, not yet been automated.
l Most of the methods developed so far are deterministic and /or probabili
stic in nature.
l The central issue in all these studies is to
l The problem of __ has been studied by other investigators, however, thes
e studies have been based upon classical statistical approaches.
l Applied ... techniques to
l Characterized the ... system as
l Developed an algorithm to
l Developed a system called ... which
l Uses an iterative algorithm to deduce
l Emphasized the need to
l Identifies six key issues surrounding high technology
l A comprehensive study of the .. has been undertaken
l Much work has been reported recently in these filed
l Proposed
l Presented
l State that
l Point out that the problem of
l Described
l Illustrated
l Indicated
l Has shown / showed
l Address
l Highlights
l A study on ...was done / developed by []
l Previous work, such as [] and [], deal only with
l The approach taken by [] is
l The system developed by [] consists
l A paper relevant to this research was published by []
l []'s model requires consideration of ..
l []' model draws attention to evolution in human development
l []'s model focuses on...
l Little research has been conducted in applying ... to
l The published information that is relevant to this research...
l This study further shows that
l Their work is based on the principle of
l More history of ... can be found in __ et al. [1979].
l Studies have been completed to established
l The ...studies indicated that
l Though application of __ in the filed of __ has proliferated in recent y
ears, effort in analyzing __, especially __, is lacking.
Problem / Issue / Question
l Unfortunately, real-world engineering problems such as manufacturing pla
nning do not fit well with this narrowly defined model. They tend to span bro
ad activities and require consideration of multiple aspects.
l Remedy / solve / alleviate these problems
l ... is a difficult problem, yet to be adequately resolved
l Two major problems have yet to be addressed
l An unanswered question
l This problem in essence involves using x to obtain a solution.
l An additional research issue to be tackled is ....
l Some important issues in developing a ... system are discussed
l The three prime issues can be summarized:
l The situation leads to the problem of how to determine the ...
l There have b een many attempts to
l It is expected to be serious barrier to
l It offers a simple solution in a limited domain for a complex problem.
l There are several ways to get around this problem.
l As difficult as it seems to be, __ is by no means new.
l The problem is to recognize __ from a design representation.
l A __ problem can trace its roots to __.
l __ [1987] used a heuristic approach to simplify the complexity of the pr
oblem.
l Several problems are associated with them.
l Although some progress has been made in this area, at least two major ob
stacles must be overcome before a fully automated system can be realized.
l Most problems in practice are complicated
l More problem surface here.
l Hamper effort toward a __ system
l In order to overcome the limitations due to incomplete and imprecise __
knowledge, a __ program has been developed, which bases its knowledge upon the
statistical analysis of a sample population of __
l The above difficulties are real challenges faced by researchers attempti
ng to develop
l This type of mapping raises no controversy to the issue of membership fu
nction determination.
l However, attempts to quantify the __ have met both theoretical and empir
ical problems.
l It has become apparent that in order to apply this new methodological fr
amework to real‑world problems and data, we have to pay attention to the
problems of __ and __.
Chapter 3. Proposed methodology
Assumption
l In the case when the assumption of a __ seems to be too restrictive or i
nadequate, the formulation with Fuzzy termination time, . given by a fuzzy
set in the space of control stages, may be applied.
l We assume here the fuzzy constraints to be state‑dependent, and th
e fuzzy goal to be the same for all the control states, __, which stems from t
he problem's nature.
l An approach to the solution of this problem is presented under the assum
ption that the sampling rate Decision can be made prior to the execution of th
e experiment, as opposed to being made while the experiment is in progress.
l Another assumption made above is that there are precise odds at which th
e expert is indifferent.
l Main simplifying assumptions are:
l This, in our view, is a questionable assumption.
Outline / Structure / Module
l An outline of the research
l Information is incorporated within the scheme
l Is built into ... structure
l A nice modular structure.
l The principles of ... are applied as modularized criteria
Classification
l A __ system comprises three main components:
l Must decompose the original .. into a set of ..
l Consists of the following steps:
l This is summarized in the following steps:
l Can be broadly classified into the following areas:
l Can be characterized by its function of effectively processing the
l Can allow further breadth of application of ...into more
l The following steps should be followed
l __ can be classified by a different ways.
l Based on the __, one may classify __ into the following:
l This catalog may change due to wear, breakage, and purchasing.
System
l Unlike many conventional program, expert systems do not usually deal wit
h problem for which there is clearly a right or wrong answer.
l The system consists of both . .. and ...
l The system has a hierarchical modular architecture organized on three le
vels.
l expert system domains are area of expertise
l To develop a __ system for __, the following factors must be considered:
l The system has been developed / designed to determine
l The system has proven to be able to
l The domain in which an expert system operates is a particular domain
l The system comprises a ... with
l The system is [feature-oriented ] / based on the ... technique
l The system environment must be relatively stable
l The system is utilized to generate, load, store, update and retrieve ...
l The development of a __ system has two stages: __ stage and __ stage.
l The most essential part of .. system is the ...
l The successful developments in ESs have made them an important tool in t
he development of
l An automated system was developed for
l In this case, the system can be considered to be generative.
l An interactive automatic ... system
l A .. is commonly thought of as a truly integrated .. system
l Should be capable of being generated from a ... system
l __ is an important part of the integrated system.
l The model consists of four rule bases, each of which addresses a separat
e problem in the hierarchy of scheduling decision.
l The rule bases are linked to each other in a chin‑like manner in t
he sense that the consequent of one rule base constitutes a part of the antece
dent of the next rule base.
l The rule base consists of all possible combinations of the linguistic te
rms associated with the linguistic variable of the antecedent of a rule.
Computer System
l The system has been implemented using Prolog language in an MS‑DOS
environment. Prolog was chosen because it offers a well known and flexible e
nvironment in which fuzzy reasoning may be easily implemented.
l The current version of the __ program when compiled with WATFOR77 result
s in an executable code of about 270K bytes. Typical run time, when run on a
XX computer (an IBM compatible machine) operating at Mhz with 640K RAM, r
anges from 10 min to 2h, depending on the size (or complexity) of the problem.
l Time consuming procedures have been implemented in C‑language and
directly linked to the Prolog environment.
l The __ process, once the __'s data has been entered, requires approximat
ely 180 seconds.
l It should be noted that the computation was done with a 20 Hhz, 80386BR>
209;based microcomputer equipped with a 80387 math co‑processor.
l The computer programs used for the analyses, one based on the __ method
and the other based on the new method, were written in FORTRAN with a compiler
that supports the math co‑processor.
l Lisp, Prolog give maximum flexibility but also maximizes development tim
l Internal representation is the way a model is represented in the compute
l An interactive menu-driven procedure is used in this study
l Shell can be develop very fast at the cost of time fairly severe limitat
ions.
l While there is no measurable saving of time for the case involving five
criteria, the saving is dramatic for the case involving 10 criteria -- the com
putation time reduces from 10 hr 40 min to about 1 min.
l This combination is being implemented in an objected‑oriente d prog
ramming environment (Smalltalk‑80 system) to solve problems encountered
in construction ___.
Method / Approach / Study / Process Model / Equation /Algorithm / Rule / Formu
la / Technique
l A discussion is presented of a problem-solving system
l To improve the efficiency of the method, the following approach may be a
pplied.
l In order to an investigation was made to find the causes of the
l Although large collections of rules and equations have been complied, no
ne are generally accepted
l This approach will be explained and discussed thoroughly in the body of
the report.
l This can be accomplished by
l This algorithm to compute the total cost can be described step by step a
s follows:
l The above preliminary analysis has provided important information
l Various methods have been proposed for selecting an optimum...
l These concepts have been applied to
l On the basis of the concept mentioned above,
l This can be achieved by
l This fact suggests that a new concept
l This was accomplished by taking ...
l The preparatory stage is very time consuming process.
l Test are performed for validity, completeness, and compatibility
l There is little hope of achieving successful ...
l There has been an increasing awareness of the potential of using most ..
so far made have not taken this approach, with the exception of
l Only a few studies can be found.
l It is a very tedious process to go through
l It is only when .. has been completed that .. may be effected
l The entire interpretation process is conducted in one's head.
l These approaches are sometimes very tedious.
l Several techniques can be used
l A polynomial parametric model can be written as [the following]/[follows
l A __ model is constructed/formulated using __.
l A __ model represents an __ by its __.
l A process decision model captures the logic essential to
l From the equation above, __ is equal to the summation of __ times the ..
l The validity of a __ model can be checked using Euler's formula.
l Given a model, one can mathematically determine whether ... or ...
l Equations for __ need to be derived and implemented in the system.
l A number of heuristic rules have been developed for
l Optimum .. techniques can be made more reliable by ... so that
l An algorithm based on the characteristic ... is used to determine
l Euler's formula states the following:
l The completed model should agree with the formula.
l For manufacturing purposes, a detailed and precise model of the object i
s necessary
l Engineering design models are very well defined; therefore,
l To keep the domain narrow enough to be implementable, yet wide enough to
be useful.
Point of View
l from an implementation standpoint,
l From the point of view of this application,
l From this point of view, Zadeh suggested an inference rule named ___ (CR
I for short).
l Information is the meaningful interpretation and correlation of some aggr
egation of data in order to allow one to make decisions.
l From a practical point of view, the computational aspects of an FLC requ
ire a simplification of the fuzzy control algorithm.
l The use of a hammer to insert screws, although partly effective, tends t
o distort, destroy, and g enerally defeat the purpose of using a screw [Kusiak
AI Implications for CIM ]
Justification
l We choose the so called __ in our experiment because it has received wid
e acceptance and can
l Prolog was chosen because it offers a well known and flexible environmen
t in which fuzzy reasoning may be easily implemented.
l The rationale behind this is that it can be much easier for an estimator
to rate a cost as high than to attempt to place a dollar value on the estimat
l This strategy has been widely used in fuzzy control applications since i
t is natural and easy to implement.
l A function definition expresses the membership function of a fuzzy set i
n a functional form, typically a bell‑shaped function, etc. Such functi
ons are used in FLC because they lead themselves to manipulation through the u
se of fuzzy arithmetic.
l It should be noted that in our daily life most of the information on whi
ch our decisions are based is linguistic rather than numerical in nature. See
n in this perspective, fuzzy control rules provide a natural framework for the
characterization of human behavior and decisions analysis.
l Many experts have found that fuzzy control rules provide a convenient wa
y to express their domain knowledge. This explains why most FLCs are based on
the knowledge and experience which are expressed in the language of fuzzy _if
‑the_ rule.
Chapter 4. Examples
Example/ Data
l The data used in the following example was taken from an experiment in w
hich __ was measured between x and x using a __ technique.
l The data consists of over __ measurements.
l An example of __ is discussed and the control rules of __ are compared w
ith a __
l Examples of complex processes to which this technique may be applied are
__, __, etc.
l The following example is constructed only for the purpose of illustratin
g the computational procedure discussed.
l This example clearly demonstrates that the profile of an individual __,
or a very small group of __, with no enough data to be studied statistically,
can be meaningfully analyzed by fuzzy possibilistic methods.
l There is no space here to go into detail on all these methods, but deser
ve a mention and the bibliography will point to detailed references for those
wishing this level of detail.
l Note that the golf ball spotting example is used throughout the paper.
Comparisons
l As well, the pros and cons of these representations from a process plann
ing point of view will be discussed.
l The method of using __ to implement __ described by Zadeh (1973) appeare
d more suitable
l As discussed [in the previous section]/[preciously],
Relation
l We can not invert F' directly because it defines a many-to-one mapping.
l The relationships appear very complicate
l Lifting tasks involve complex and imprecise relationship between the tas
k variables and the human operator's characteristics.
l These methods are based on the relationship between ... and ...
l The fundamental concept of a fuzzy rating language is that we can establ
ish a relationship among terms such as high, medium, and low, and then modify
these relationships.
l This article will thus mention the latter as well as the former.
l The former two bear a close relation to a fuzzy Cartesian product.
Importance
l The emphasis is on an implementation of a general approach to rule based
decision making.
Consideration / Attention
l Careful evaluation is necessary to ensure
l Such a formulation does not change further considerations.
l Considerable attention has been paid to
l Attention should be paid to an important finding of this investigation.
l Caution should be exercised in this process to avoid ...
l Primary consideration is given to ... components, though others can be ac
commodated
l After ... has been defined by ..., a carefully analysis is carried out/p
erformed to determine
l A number of factors such as ...need to be taken into consideration befor
e making the appropriate decision.
l It should be noted that
l It is important to point out that ...
l These considerations have heightened interest in the possibility of prov
iding ...
l We should stress the fundamental importance of the __
Chapter 5. Results.
Advantages / Disadvantage
l One of the major advantages of this new measure of __ is that it can be
applied to the experimental study of
l One advantage of using a .. is the ease of preparing it.
l The __ system is versatile
l It has a very fast decision making process
l All the algorithms involve mostly logical operations.
l It can be easily and without additional cost implemented in a microprocesso
r‑based environment.
l It can reduce the waste of designing from scratch.
l The advantages of using a __ to represent __ are the following:
l However, __ is not without its shortcomings.
l In most cases, the ___ shows an improvement over the existing ___.
l Compared to the existing __, the impacts of the __ are generally reduced
by 5% to 9%.
l The _best case_ results shows a savings of 6% to 9%.
l Most of the existing works based on __ approach can only recognize a __
l Most of the above methods are computational expansive and limited to __.
l Some other advantages of __ are the following:
l The problem is the limitation of this method to a limited domain of part
l It proved limited in application because it demanded precision in system
modeling that was impossible in practice.
l There are advantages to be gained in the structuring of costs and benefi
ts, the use of __,
l The disadvantages of this method are also disadvantages of conventional
__ approaches.
l This combines the best features of both techniques
l Hopefully, this tool can be as the reference framework of for developing
a __ platform, and helping the administration, marketing, and knowledge manag
ement activities in virtual communities.
Results
l An improvement on the result shown above can be made by based on the dat
a provided
l Discussion of these theories is beyond the scope of this review
l Based on the information contained in this
l The result can be categorized into nine classes
l The results are illustrated by an example
l The experimental results for each __ time are reported in Table 2.
l From the results obtained so far, it seem that
l Because of the inaccuracy of the ..., a conclusion cannot be drawn as
l Although much effort has been made to., this reality is far from complet
ion.
l The results indicate that the total benefits are higher than the total c
osts .
l Their results may then serve as guidelines for lower level models, less
fuzzy and more detailed.
Chapter 6. Conclusion
l From the discussion, one may conclude that ...
l Form the above discussion, the conclusion can be reached that
l The conclusions drawn are also valid
l In conclusion to this, it becomes obvious that the problem of __ lies no
t only in...
l We have attempted to introduce some concepts associated with a theory of
__ based on fuzzy sets.
l Considerable more work, hopefully, will be done in this area
l A fuzzy set procedure is proposed to solve __ selection problems interwo
ven with imprecise data
l Employing the compositional rule of inference, the assessment of the __
compatibility in achieving prescribed __ projectiles in any level of the hiera
rchy is made possible.
l This paper has presented a theoretical and experimental study of the __ p
rocess and __ concept.
l The experimental research results will hopefully serve as useful feedback
information for improvements for __ work.
l The scope of this contribution was to introduce a __ method.
l In general, fuzzy sets theory provides an alternative foundation for __ a
nalysis in a fuzzy environment.
Future Research
l Thus, first extension of the approach could be,
l Present some cues for a further approach from Fuzzy Sets Theory applicat
ion to
l Some improvements to the scheduling aspect of the model may be brought t
hrough additional levels in the hierarchy for more detailed representation of
the scheduling activity.
Tables and Figures
l Figure 7-1 sketches these relationships.
l The graphical representation of these functions is shown in Figure 1.
l The __ may be depicted as in Figure 1.
l Figure x shows the schematic diagram of the
l Figure 1 though 2 provide a ... that
l the architecture of this expert system for .... is illustrated in Figure
l Figure 2 gives the outline of an ... system
l Table shows the
l as shown in Table 1 and 2
l This concept is illustrated in Figure 2
l At the top of Table __ are shown two blocks of data.
l Each table or matrix has constructs __ through __ as row‑headings,
__ through __ as column‑headings.
l A table of .. is developed and significant recommendations are made.
CONJUGATION
To Indicate Addition
l additionally, again, also, and then, as can be easily understood, beside
s, equally important, especially, finally, for the same reason, first, further
, furthermore, in addition, last, likewise, moreover, next, second, third, too
, evidently, obviously, roughly speaking, broadly speaking
To Indicate Cause and Effect
l accordingly, as a result, consequently, for this reason, hence, in short
, otherwise, then, therefore, thus, truly
To indicate Comparison
l in a like manner, likewise, similarly , alternatively
To Indicate Concession
l after all, although this may be true, at the same time, even though, eve
n so , I admit, naturally, of course
To Indicate Contrast
l and yet, at the same time, but, for all that, however, yet, in fact, in
contrast, in the real life, in spite of, nevertheless, notwithstanding, normal
ly, on the contrary, on the other hand, still, traditionally, rather, unfortun
ately,
To Indicate Time Relationships
l after a short time, afterwards, as indicated earlier, as long as, as soo
n as, at last, at length, at the moment, at that time, at the same time, befor
e, earlier, currently, immediately, in the meantime, in recent years, lately,
later, meanwhile, often, of late, presently, recently, soon, shortly, since, t
hereupon, temporarily, therefore, until, when, while
To Indicate Special Features or Examples
l for example, for instance, incidentally, indeed, in fact, in other words
, in particular, in practice, specifically, that is, to illustrate, in this re
spect, theoretically, as mentioned before / above
To Indicate Summary
l in brief, in conclusion, in short, in summary, on the whole, to conclude
, in general, to summarize, to sum up, as a result, ultimately,
VERB PHASE
l build a .. model
l build up the key link
l began a new era in ...
l can be regarded as / achieved / used to/for / found / obtained throu
l can result in
l carries out ... tasks
l production information in order to simultaneously
l contains all information necessary to describe
l do not make use of production information
l deals with
l end with failure
l fetch the information from the model directly
l has great potential / yet to be resolved / spurred the development of /
been recognized as
l BE aimed at / built up / carried out by / essentially concerned with /
considered to be the key technology / associated with each feature of a compo
site component / cable of / currently implemented for / demonstrated by an exa
mple / finally reached / made equal to / equivalent to / more suitable to / o
riented to / interpreted as / pointed out / potentially of great benefit in th
e complex task of / shown in / used to effectively guide the search
l makes use of
l make up
l meets the needs of real life production,/ the current demands placed upo
n it
l must be justified
l point out
l play an important role
l relates to
l rely on
l satisfy the needs
l determine the total requirements for the ...
l uses ... as a key to search for...
l without relying on
l will be available/ performed/ overlooked
NOUN PHASE
l a basic technical function of
l a critical need
l a key / principle feature of
l a substantial impact on
l an intensive review was conducted
l an increasing need for expanding the application of ....
l an important component / function / aspect / issue
l each rule is numbered in sequence
l each of these involves
l for this calculation, it is necessary to define
l in the physical environment / integration of
l in the reality of situations where …
l many aspects of
l most past efforts have been spent on ...
l common sense to a well studied and documented technical field.
l sources of additional information on ... are listed
l systematic and rationally structured format
l the basis on which a range of ...operations can be established is shown
l THE basic philosophy / principles of / key element / general hypothesi
s / candidate list of / concept of ... has attracted wide interest / functio
n is concerned with / heart / impact / nature / role / task of / kernel functi
ons
l the number of parts needed to
l the ab ove statement means that
l the output data is passed to
l the proposed method / underlying principle
l the recommendations made in this report, if implemented, should
l this information resides in
l this process is composed of ... different ... operation
l along with the use of
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l in turn,
l IT IS believed / noted / assumed / suggested / shown / quite evident
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l let ... be the probability that
l once... is written, it is compiled into...
l suppose it is observe
英语专业论文模板 篇二
目前，高职院校毕业论文质量不高，学生在此环节没有太多收获及提高，已失去其本身的意义。
（一）随意选题
为了降低学生选题难度，导师一般会指定一些题目，然后学生从中选择或自拟。但是普遍存在选题集中且理论性较强，毕业论文不能与实际工作问题结合，不关注专业动态题目陈旧等问题。其主要问题是学生根本没有想法，不会选题而随意选题，严重缺乏专业积累，理论水平不够。
（二）论文撰写能力有限
（三）对毕业论文重视程度不够
而绝大多数学生由于参加实习工作，相对于校园生活工作压力较大而无心写作。另一些学生没有认识和体会到毕业论文的意义所在，而认为其只是走形式，好坏一般都会过，态度不够认真。
（四）导师方面
学生毕业论文指导多数采取的是导师制。由于学生多，教师相对较少的客观情况致使，导师指导学生数量过多，根本无精力深入指导每位学生。主观方面，由于但毕业论文指导不参与期末考核及职称评定等问题从而被忽视，使论文指导停留于形式。
英文论文 篇三
关键词：护理论文；PubMed；英文；中国；内地；护理研究
随着护理专业的发展以及护理队伍的壮大，近年来中国内地（下称内地）护理科研论文的数量和质量都有了显著提高，在内地期刊上发表的论文数量增长尤为显著。但这些论文除摘要外几乎全部用中文撰写，其阅读群体也多为国内读者，这对于科学的评价和促进内地的护理事业不利，因为对于几乎没有中文阅读能力的其他国家的护理人员而言，阅读内地的护理论文是她们了解内地护理状况的主要方式。鉴于英语是目前最主要的工作语言，英文护理论文在一定程度上代表了内地护理科研的水平，决定了国际护理领域对内地护理水平的评价，同时也对内地能否同其他地区进行更广泛的交流和合作有着深远影响。基于以上背景，笔者采用文献分析法，调查截止2007年12月31日内地以第一作者发表的英文护理论文情况，并进行相关因素分析，为提高内地护理专业和护理人员在国际护理领域的地位提供借鉴。
一、资料与方法
选取PubMed文献检索系统，检索关键词设为：“ChinaorP.R.ChinaNOHongKongNOTTaiwanNOTMacao[AD]”，在子集中限定“NursingJournals”，论文撰写语言限定为“English”，检索时间限定至2007／12／31。只检索已经出版的刊物，不包括已通过审核，尚未出版的论文。对于北京、上海、天津及重庆4个直辖市，考虑到某些作者可能只写地区而未注明China，按照“BeijingORShanghaiORTianjinORchongqing[AD]”的策略进行增补。同时考虑到台湾和香港地区的某些作者可能只注明“China”
而未注明地区，对检索到的沦文进行手工删减。
阅读摘要或全文，对作者的属地、期刊的种类、是否有研究基金及来源进行统计，所得数据进行构成比分析。
二、结果
2.1论文总量
最初检索到64篇文章，增补北京地区的2篇，减去台湾地区的6篇后共得到60篇文章，第1篇文章发表在1989年。而1990～2007年，来自香港地区的英语护理文献总数为576篇，台湾地区为634篇。
2.2论文的区域分布
按作者属地行政区域进行归类，有15个地区的学者发表过英文护理学术论文，数量较多的依次是北京、湖北和上海，三地的累计论文数占全部论文总量的61.7％，有17个地区未发表任何与护理相关的英文学术论文。
2.3的期刊
60篇文章发表在31种护理国际期刊上，其中发表文章较多的依次是Nursing&HealthSciences（7篇），JournalofClinicalNursing（6篇），JournalofAdvancedNursing（5篇），JournalofCancerNursing（4篇），InternationalNursingReview（4篇）。
2.4研究论文的资助情况
PubMed资料显示，60篇文章中有18篇所报道的研究获得了资助，占30.0％。其中3项来自内地；13项来自合作单位，包括美国（7项）、香港（5项）、加拿大（1项）。此外，有1篇未找到全文，另1篇∞3在文中没有介绍相关信息无法确定其资助来源。
三、讨论
3.1内地英文护理论文的现况及分析
3.1.1内地护理工作者撰写英文论文的整体水平较低尽管内地拥有最大的护士群体和最多的护理服务人口，然而内地护理工作者撰写英文护理论文的能力却亟需大力提高。在1989～2007年近20年的时间咀，仪有60篇英文文章发表，昆然这些文章不能代表内地实际的护理水平，但检索这些文章却是国际社会了解和评价内地护理学科动态的主要方式。因此，内地在国际护理领域中的地位和所能发挥的作用可想而知。同时，由于未能通过论文真实展示自身的科研水平和研究方向，进一步限制了我国护理工作者与国际护理领域的深入交流与合作。本次调查显示，与内地合作的国家和地区的范围狭窄（仅美国、香港及加拿大），反映出该问题的严重性。这对内地护理专业的发展极为不利，因为每个护理工作者都需要通过国际性的交流来分享和促进各国共同的知识和技能。
尤其是当今，所有的国家和地区都处于同一个全球健康系统巾，让世界更多地了解内地和内地了解世界同样重要。
3.1.2内地各地区之间发表英文护理论文的差异较大北京、上海经济文化巾心地区的国际论文数量显著高于其他地区，提示护理科研论文的国际化程度与社会发展水平之间的密切关系。首先，在经济、文化发达地区，护理人员的整体素质较高，他们有着较高的专业素养和英文水平，具有撰写英文护理论文的基本能力。其次，经济、文化发达地区对护理科研更为重视，很多地区在人员招聘和职称晋升中对科研有较高的要求，形成了浓厚的科研氛围，这在很大程度上提高了护理人员的科研意识。第三，这些地区对科研的投入也相对较多，护理人员有机会查阅更多的科研文献、了解最新的前沿动态。另外，国际合作是促进英文护理沦文发表的重要途径。通过合作能够开阔护理人员的视野，转变护理理念和思维方式，使她们能够从国际化的视角进行科学研究和撰写论文。例如本次调查显示，湖北地区发表的13篇英文护理论文中，8篇由武汉大学HoPE护理学院的Petrini和Lambert教授协助完成，充分说明有效的国际合作对推进内地护理论文的国际化进程有重要的意义。
3.1.3科研资助严重缺乏本次调查的60篇论文中，只有3项获得了内地科研基金的资助，有些科研资助来自国际合作单位，而更多的研究缺乏必要的科研经费，这种状况与护理队伍整体的科研水平较低是分不开的。内地自1983年恢复高等护理教育至今只有20多年的时问，研究生教育更足刚刚起步，目前内地绝大部分的护理工作者最初接受的只足中专教育，虽然很多护理人员毕业后接受了函授、自考等学历教育，但没有接受过系统的科研训练，缺乏进行科学研究的能力。护理人员的科研能力同其他专业人员相比有较大的差距，且基金评审专家往往来自临床和基础领域，对护理专业缺乏深入的了解，因此，护理人员在同其他专业人员同时竞争科研经费时往往处于劣势，较难获得资助，加之传统观念上对护理专业的定位较低，多数地区对护理科研的投入较少。
3.1.4专业英语水平亟待提高与中文护理科研论文相比，英文论文的数量和质量的差距都非常显著，说明英语水平是限制内地很多护理工作者撰写英文论文的重要因素。目前在中等和高等护理教育中，英语的学时数都很高，占到公共课程学时数的29.65％[4]，但这些英语课主要学习词汇、语法等公共英语，从教学内容到教学环境都缺少医学背景。这种英语学习模式导致绝大部分的护理人员专业英语水平较低，无法阅读英文科技论文，因而也无法把握国际护理专业的发展动态，撰写论文时感觉无从下笔。
同时由于信息资源匮乏，多数护理工作者对国外护理期刊的种类、论文选题要求、书写规范等都不了解，因而从未写过英文论文。
3.2对策
3.2.1加强护理教育，提高护理人员的整体素质与发达国家和地区相比，内地护理人员整体素质偏低。提高素质，教育先行，近年来，随着高等护理教育的蓬勃发展，以及研究生教育的逐渐推进，护理人员的素质得到了一定的提高，但是必须看到，目前高素质的护理人才仍是稀缺资源，绝大部分护理人员的专业水平仍然偏低。本次调查发现内地尚有17个地区从未发表过同护理相关的英文论文，显示了该问题的广泛性和严重性。为提高护理人员的整体素质，今后仍要继续扩大高等护理教育的规模，这在中西部经济文化相对落后的地区更为重要，同时在课程体系的设置上要同国际接轨，变医学教育模式为护理教育模式，强调从护理的专业角度去发现和解决问题。在此基础上还要大力推进护理硕士和博士教育，以此来提高科学研究的水平并推动专业的发展。
3.2.2提高科研意识，加强科研训练要提高护理人员的科研意识，首先要转变护理工作中操作为主，研究为辅的观念。每个护理人员都要清楚地认识到科学研究足发展新知识，为临床护理措施提供依据，提高人群健康状态的一种基本工具，是与每个护理人员密切相关的技能。在护理实践中要改变机械的执行医嘱的工作方式，从专业的角度去评价护理工作并勇于从研究的角度去发现和解决问题。其次，建立护理科研合作机构，确定科研优先策略，提高护理人员科研的针对性。为促进科研的发展并有利于整合多种资源，很多国家和地区都会确定国家或区域性的科研优先策略，即通过广泛的调查和研究，确定一定时期内需要重点解决和发展的护理问题，以此对科学研究的方向进行指导。文献显示，台湾地区在1999年，香港地区在2002年都确定了自己的护理研优先发展策略。这种策略对于引导护理人员科学选题，确定研究方式，争取科研基金、加强机构合作以及促进成果转化方面都发挥着重要的作用。
3.2.3加大对护理科研的投入，并重点扶持科学研究的开展需要一定的经费做支撑，科研经费的不足是制约护理科研发展的重要囚素。要改变这一现状需要各级医院和学校加大对护理科研的投入，为护理人员进行科学研究创造更好的条件，如增加护理人员外出考察与交流合作的机会，扩大和补充图书馆护理期刊杂志的馆藏，尤其是最新的外文杂志，建立方便快捷的文献检索系统等。另外，鉴于护理科研整体实力较弱的实际情况，需要各级科研主管部门给予特殊政策进行扶持，如建立护理科研的专项基金等。除此之外要努力增加科研经费的来源，如接受企业或个人捐助，通过对外交流获取国际资助等。
3.2.4提高专业英语水平，本次调查显示，作为母语同为汉语的台湾和香港地区，其护理专业人员撰写英文论文的能力远远高于内地，这同他们在教育领域推行纯英文授课以及坚持用英语撰写学术论文有密切的关系。因此要提高内地护理人员专业英语的水平，在今后的学校教育尤其是研究生教育中，要增加专业英语的比重，使用英文教材或讲义，加大双语授课的比例或推行纯英语授课。同时利用一切机会扩大对外交流及合作，通过合作在提高专业英语水平的同时还可以获得撰写英文论文的技巧，以此促进英文护理论文的发表。另外，在广大护理人员普遍关注职称晋升等问题上也要提高对专业英语的要求。有文献显示2001年，为促进科研和论文的国际化，土耳其高等教育委员会制定了一定级别的高校教师职称晋升时必须要发表国际性论文等一系列政策，促使护理人员大量查阅国际性文献，并撰写相关论文。这一政策取得了良好的效果，土耳其的国际护理论文和专业论著的数量得到了持续的增长？，该做法对内地部分条件比较成熟的地区有一定的借鉴意义。
四、小结
英语专业论文模板 篇四
2002年《大学法语大纲》明确规定：“大学法语教学的目的是培养一定的阅读能力，初步的听、说、读、写、译的能力，使学生能以法语为工具，获取专业所需，为进一步提高法语水平打下较好的基础。”盖房子最重要的是搭地基，对于法语二外教学，打基础就是最重要的。学过法语的人都知道，法语确实是一门很难的语言。如果给学生打好了扎实的基础，那么一切都将迎刃而解。
(一) 法语二外课时和内容相比显得过少。每周四课时，开设四个学期，总共256课时，听、说、读、写、译各方面的内容都要涉及到，打好基础，在这么少的课时下，要达到教学目标面临不少困难。
(二) 各个学校选用的法语二外教材都不尽相同，每套教材侧重点不同，例如有的侧重笔头，有的侧重口语，给参加英语专业研究生考试的学生带来不少烦恼。
(三) 法语辅导书种类繁多，不好选择，与教材配套的辅导书也常常出现错误，给教师教学和学生学习带来一些困难。
英语专业论文模板 篇五
(一)运用精讲多练的方法。通常，教师在讲台上讲，吐沫飞溅，学生在下面被动地听，一知半解，这完全是填鸭式的教学。所谓精讲多练，就是少讲，重要的部分着重讲，多练，讲了就练，不做练习就不知道哪些地方还有不明白的，这样可以为学生创造更多思考和锻炼的机会。
(三)法语和英语的比较学习法。分两个方面：语音比较和语法比较。
1. 语音比较。英语和法语同属印欧语系，在语音和拼读规则方面存在着许多相近之处。在教学中有目的的采取汉、英、法语音点的对比，能促进理解，避免混淆，事半功倍。法语共36个音素，其中元音16个。元音读法主要受舌位影响，比较英、法元音发音的舌位，可分析其中的相近与不同之处。法语16个元音全是单元音，且没有长、短音之分。而英语则有单元音和双元音两种元音类型。对比两种语言元音发音的舌位，可发现发音部位相似的。对比分析有两方面的含义：一方面是教师在备课时对英法三种语音进行比较，找出它们的异同点。既要分析可起到正迁移的作用的有利因素，更重要的是找出英语中那些语音现象对法语语音学习将起干扰(负迁移)的作用。另一方面，在课堂教学中，可对某些容易混淆的语音现象适当利用汉、英、法比较(尤其是，英法比较)的方法，帮助学生掌握法语语音的特点，使负迁移转化为正迁移。如学生很容易将法语单词的重音放在词首，教师就应指出两者的读音区别，并加强练习，尤其是英法形似词之间的读音区别。
2. 语法比较。英语和法语同属印欧语系，在长期的相互影响下，它们的语法之间会不可避免的出现一些相似之处。但是在许多方面也存在相当明显的差异。从词形学上，可对比它们的名词、冠词、代词和动词等用法；从句法学上，可对比它们的时态还有法语的条件式和英语的虚拟语式。
英语专业论文模板 篇六
我国目前的大学公共英语教学还存在许多不足。一方面，英语教学中存在严重的应试教育的倾向，尽管四、六级考试体系正在改革，本应遵循语言教学规律的英语教学依然残留应试教育的成分，重“教”轻“学”，重“结果”轻“过程”，重“知识传授”轻“学习方法或策略教学与指导”。另一方面，“以教师为中心”的传统教学方法及模式，不仅不能激起学生的求知欲和参与教学活动的热情，更使学生的创造性难以发挥，独立自主学习能力难以培养，造成大学生对教师和课堂的过分依赖。此外，部分大学生英语基础薄弱，英语应用能力差，缺乏有效的学习方法，在积极性和主动性上也存在着差异，缺乏独立学习的习惯和能力。
当今时代是一个科技迅猛发展的时代，知识总量正以成倍的速度递增，人们在知识总量不断增长的前提下，要赶上信息时代的步伐，自主学习能力的培养是关键。如何在英语教学中培养学生的自主学习能力，是值得我们英语教师探讨的一个新课题。古人云：授人以鱼，不如授之以渔。这就是说教师不仅教给学生知识，更重要的是教会学生获取知识的方法和本领，以适应竞争日益激烈的社会需要。著名教育家叶圣陶说过“教是为了不需要教”，“不教是为了养成学生有一辈子自学的能力”。因此指导学生正确的学习方法，培养良好的学习习惯和自学能力，激发学生学习的积极性是提高大学生自主学习能力的关键所在。
英语学术论文 篇七
培养学生学习英语的兴趣，是英语新课程标准所提倡的。兴趣是求知欲的基础，儿童学习英语的主要动力来自于对英语产生强烈的兴趣，有了兴趣就有了获取知识的良好开端。在英语教学中，借助信息技术辅助英语教学，根据教学内容的需要巧妙合理地设计教学环节，新颖巧妙地呈现教学内容，逼真的视听环境，对激发学生的学习兴趣有特殊的教学效果。特别是在英语教学的导入环节，我感触很深。巧妙成功的导入，可以很快将学生的注意力吸引到英语教学氛围中，使学生产生浓厚的学习兴趣，从而激发强烈的求知欲，学生带着浓厚兴趣主动地接受知识必将获得较好的教学效果。例如，Vegeta-bles一课教学中水果单词较多，如果单靠教师口语教学，直观性差，教学效果一般，学生不容易记忆。此时借助多媒体从已有的生活经验和知识基础入手，设计模拟水果超市的场景来导入新课，并设计几个学生喜欢的卡通小人分别去超市购物，学生的积极性被大大调动起来，然后根据本课识读的单词如peaches，strawberries，watermelons等设计强化训练模式区间。学生熟悉的场景中视听一体化刺激，必将产生强烈的求知欲。学生兴趣盎然，积极性调动起来了，教学效果也就自然提高了。
二、借助信息技术搭建互动平台
促使学生参与交流活动信息技术呈现图文并茂、动静相宜的视频信息，化静态为动态，形象直观的展示功能促进学生积极、主动地参与，并保持长时间的注意力，以达到最佳的学习状态。其信息量大、形象真实产生较逼真的视听效果会促使学生反应灵敏、激活思维，提高他们交流的主动性，有效地提高师生互动的频率和效果。如教学13-19这些数字的拼写、拼读时，设计What’smissing？和Findfriends两个情境游戏，学生从好奇到积极参与，活跃思维空间，拓宽了学生思路。又如，在教学Seasons一课时，用多媒体创设spring，summer，autumn，winter四季风景欣赏环节，让学生根据掌握的一年四季的季节特点，分别填写seasons，weather，clothes，canyousee，liketodo等内容。学生在多媒体创设情境的感染下，小组讨论挑选自己最喜欢的季节来完成知识的构建。此外，建立网络互动交流平台，寻求契机拉近师生距离，鼓励师生通过网络平台沟通、交流、讨论。如网络作业空间，英语QQ聊天群，电子邮件互帮互答，微博交流等，促使学生参与交流活动，增进情感，增长知识。
三、借助信息技术培养学生自主学习的能力
英语学术论文 篇八
翻译技巧，即翻译方法，能使具有概括性、指导性、基础性的翻译原理具体化、条理化、实施化，利用各种翻译转换法准确、完整传达话语信息。它着重解决的是具体翻译转换上技术、技艺、艺术上的问题。翻译理论专着或教材中对技巧的处理一般按两条线索分别或结合进行归纳：一是按原语的词类、句型等语法范畴及惯用法系列等，梳理翻译表达的技巧、方法；另一是按对原文信息、形式进行翻译表达的方法，而在分合、增减、反正、顺逆、去留存变、直译形神等辨证关系上，对翻译手法进行分类。翻译是科学又是艺术，对于技巧，理论着作、教材不能囊括翻译实践中的所有情况，具体问题还须具体分析，翻译者不但要灵活运用已有的技巧，而且要善于创造新的技巧，以使译文传意达旨，形神兼备。
选词，即选义择词，贯穿于整个翻译的实际操作过程之中。这里的“词”指表达某一实体或整体性概念的单词、词组和短语。“选义”是由人类语言的一词多义现象决定的。任何一种发展完备的人类语言，其中的大部分词汇都是一词多义。例如单词charge: 动词含义有两个，在科技英语的环境下是“充电”,而在日常生活中是“索取(费用)”。名词通常是“电流”的含义。该如何措辞则要看具体语境了。此外，英语中有一些名词，同时有两个形容词，比如名词sun,它的形容词可以是sunny,也可以是solar,这里就有个辨义和确定词义的问题。另外，语言使用中还普遍存在着多词一义的现象，即同一意思对应不同的词语。在英语里，一词多义是非常常见的，这与英语的多源生有关。现代英语中不仅有许多词汇是从古英语演变而来，还有约80%的词汇从外国输入的，经过历史变迁，这些词汇并存和融合，使英语一词多义，一义多词的现象特别普遍。因此译者除了具有辨义这项本领外，还要具备“择词”这方面的技巧。
无论是“选义”,还是“择词”,都离不开具体的语境。英国翻译理论家纽马克说，没有词是完全孤立的(No word is an island entire to itself.),词的意义必然受到前后相邻词句的影响。我国学者王佐良先生也说，上下文不只是语言问题，说话是一种社会行为，上下文实际上是提供了一个社会场合或情境，正是它决定了词义。他还指出，一个词不仅有直接的、表面的、字典上的意义，还有内涵的、情感的、牵涉许多联想的意义；一个词的意义有时不是从本身看得很清楚的，而要通过整篇整段--亦即通过这个词在不同情境下的多次再现--才能确定。香港译界有句名言：词无定译，说的就是同一个词在不同的语境中可能有不同的翻译。
从词语与语境的关系看，有些词基本不受语境影响(context-free),如意义相对固定单一的专有名词、科技术语、数量词等；有些词则受语境制约(context-bound),如那些含有感情色彩、价值判断且意义极为丰富的普通名词、形容词、动词、副词等。对于这些词语，先利用各种手段确定其意，然后恰当措辞表达。下面介绍几种确定词义的方法。
一。根据上下文和汉语习惯搭配来确定词义
长句、难句、复杂句，句句难懂，这是大家都非常清楚的一点。如何看懂句子，而又不失精准的把译文写出来成了迫在眉睫的任务。 首先，我们都知道：在动手翻译之前，必须要把英语原文看懂。理解原文是整个翻译过程的第一步。这是最关键、也是最容易出问题的一步。以下我们通过考研英语翻译实例来具体讲解在理解原文的前提下如何根据上下文确定词义：
A.意群拆分确定词义：
e.g. “In short”, a leader of the new school contends, “the scientific revolution, as we call it, was largely the improvement and invention and use of a series of instruments that expanded the reach of science in innumerable directions.” (1994-72)
本句可以分四个意群来确定词义：
第一个意群：in short简言之school学派contend 坚持认为，争辩，讨论
第二个意群：the scientific revolution 科学革命(不可译为“科技革命”)as we call it所谓的
第三个意群：largely 在很大程度上a series of一系列instruments器具、仪器
第四个意群：expand拓展reach影响范围innumerable无数的、数不清的direction方面
e.g. Social science is that branch of intellectual enquiry which seeks to study humans and their endeavors in the same reasoned, orderly, systematic, and dispassionate manner that natural scientists use for the study of natural phenomena.(2003-62)
本句可以分三个意群来确定词义。
第一个意群：social science社会科学 branch分支intellectual enquiry知识探索
第二个意群：seek力图reasoned理性的dispassionate冷静的，客观的in…manner以…方式
第三个意群：natural scientist自然科学家
在英译汉部分，确定词义可以说是最难的。前面所说的agree,很多人只会翻译成“同意”,而不知道根据上下文翻译成“认为”,这就是一个教训。
B.词语搭配构成词组小语境，可以藉此确定相互间的意义：
1) express the idea:表达e.g. He cannot express his ideas clearly in speaking.
2) advocate the idea:鼓吹、维护e.g. This organization advocated Hitler’s Nazi ideas.
3) borrow the idea:借用、抄袭e.g. This idea was borrowed from the West.
4) spread the idea:传播e.g. Democratic ideas are being spread throughout the world.
5) deepen the impression:(加深)e.g. He did that to deepen the impression that he was generous.
6) exercise/use the influence:使用e.g. He promised to use his influence to get me a job.
7) have the influence:具有e.g. This movie has an adverse influence on teenagers.
8) exert the influence:施加e.g.…you are expected to exert positive influence on your fellow schoolmates.
二、通过语篇语境确定词义
翻译过程中，语篇不论是对原文的理解还是对译文的构建都起着非常重要的作用。由于语篇是最基本的翻译单位，译者应该予以足够的重视。合格的译者不仅要具备语篇分析的能力，还必须首先具备语篇意识。所谓语篇意识就是要求译者将语篇看作一个整体，而不局限于词、短语、句子，从语篇整体把握原文、理解原文、再现译文。
e.g. The man, who, in old age, can see his life in this way, will not suffer from the fear of death, since the things he cares for will continue. And if, with the decay of vitality, weariness increases, the thought of rest will be not unwelcome. I should wish to die while still at work, knowing that others will carry on what I can no longer do (B. Russell).
译文：上了年纪而能这样看待生活的人就不会遭受怕死的痛苦，因为他所关怀的事物将继续下去。同时，如果精力衰竭了，疲乏增加了，休息的思想并非是要不得的。我倒愿意工作不息，死而后已，因为我知道别人会继续我未完成的事业(《新概念英语》第4册)。
如果只看到划线的这一句话，译文似乎没什么可挑剔。但是，如果考虑一下上下文，将整个句群看作一个整体，我们会发现译文与前文与后文都不相呼应。因为原文第一句“The man who, in old age, can see his life in this way, will not suffer from the fear of death”与最后一句“I should wish to die while still at work”都表明整篇的主题是死亡问题，“rest”的含义是“长眠”而非“休息”,但划线部分的译文却与“死亡”无关。而且，这里的“rest”是一种委婉的说法，表示死亡的这类委婉语还有很多，如“silence”、“sleep”、“quietus”等，如果原文用的是“silence”,难道应该将其译为“沉默的思想并非是要不得的”?显然，产生这一问题的根本原因就是不顾文章的整体性，孤立地“理解”部分语句，忽略了篇章整体信息的参与。划线部分的合理译文应该是：而且，如果随着精力的衰竭，疲倦之感日渐增加，长眠并非是不受欢迎的念头。
杨绛先生在她的文章《记钱钟书与〈围城〉》中，多处用到了“痴气”及与“痴”相关的词组，来描绘钱种书先生异于常人的脾性，在不同语境下其意多有不同。凌原先生，根据具体情况选用不同的英语词汇来翻译“痴气”及相关词组，请看以下诸例：
1) 钟书写完《围城》,“痴气”依然旺盛，但是没有体现为第二部小说。
After Chung-shu finished writing Fortress Besieged, his “eccentric” bent was still going strong, but it failed to take form in a second novel.
2) 我觉得《围城》里的人物和情节，都凭他那股子痴气，呵成了真人真事。
It was those charming mischievous quirks of his that made it possible for him to create the characters and plots for the novel and pass them off as real people and real deeds.
3) “高兴”也正是钱家所谓“痴气”的表现。
“Being funny” was another manifestation of his puckish bent in the eyes of the Ch’iens.
4) 钟书的“痴气”也怪别致的。
Chung-shu’s sweet quirkiness is peculiarly his own.
5) 沦陷在上海的时候，他多余的“痴气”往往发泄在叔父的小儿小女、孙儿孙女和自己的女儿阿圆身上。
When he was stranded in Shanghai, he would take out his pent-up eccentric energy on Younger Uncle’s small children, grand children and Ah Yuan, his own daughter…
三、通过常识判断确定词义
常识(common sense / general knowledge about the world around us)人人有，而且常识愈丰富对翻译理解愈有用。很多老翻译家如吕淑湘、傅雷、杨宪益都强调翻译需要“杂学”。我想，这“杂学”可以看作是比较“高级”的常识吧。请看下面一段关于铜质保温瓶结构的描述：
---Another type is a double-walled copper vessel with the corresponding surface scrupulously cleaned to achieve the high intrinsic reflectivity of copper. A body of charcoal absorbent may be affixed to the outer wall of the fluid container, where it is kept cold and helps to condense any gases remaining in the vacuum space after it is evacuated and sealed off.
某译文：另一种类型是有双壁的铜容器，其相应表面洁净无疵以获得铜所固有的高反射率。在流体容器的外壁可以粘着一层木炭吸附剂，它保持着低温并在容器抽空和密封后帮助冷凝残留在真空空间的气味。
此句的翻译关键在于两个it的意思。根据上面的译文，两个it都指fluid container。这显然不对。从原文看，fluid container明显指铜质保温瓶盛装液体的内胆，而内胆怎么能抽空呢？根据生活常识，保温瓶中要抽空的是内外夹层之间的夹套，即原文中的the vacuum space,因此第二个it应指the vacuum space。再举一个简单一点的例子：She could knit when she was seven.。句中的knit,其基本意思是“编织”,但译文不能只说“织”或“编织”,必须把动词的宾语补上，因为汉语里说“她七岁时就会(编)织”显得不够自然。那么“织”什么呢？根据我们的生活经历，一般是织毛衣，而不是织麻袋什么的，因此原句可译为“她七岁时就会织毛衣”。常识也包括一些很简单的科普知识。如果科技知识为大众所共有，那就是利用科学背景知识来确定词义。
四、利用背景知识确定词义
理解一个词有时需要从文本以外去寻找相关信息，如上面的常识判断。在科学翻译中，时常需要运用自然科学或社会科学或其他领域的背景知识来确定词义。如：
---Velocity changes if either the speed or direction changes.
velocity 和speed都可表示“速度”,前者具专技色彩，一般用于科技文献，后者语域较宽，可用于科技或日常生活领域。如果将velocity 和speed都理解为“速度”,原文表述将失去意义，因此这里velocity 和speed中必有一个词表示其他意义。物理学告诉我们，速率是矢量，有大小又有方向，而速度是标量，有大小而没有方向。据此，velocity是速度，因为原文语境信息暗示它有方向(direction),speed是速率。这样确定词义后原句可译为：”如果(物体运动的)速率和方向有一个发生变化，则物体的运动速度也随之发生变化。”
五、利用逻辑判断和推理确定词义
在翻译实践中我们还可以利用逻辑学的有关知识，如矛盾律等来确定词义。如：
---Automobiles and trucks would be powered by quickly replaceable electric batteries.
某译文：汽车和卡车则可以迅速替换的电池组作动力……
译文乍一看似乎没有问题，可是从逻辑的角度仔细思考，我们会发现，“汽车”和“卡车”两个概念是蕴涵与被蕴涵的从属关系，即“卡车”包含在“汽车”之中。“汽车”是属概念，“卡车”是种概念。译文犯了种属概念并列的逻辑错误。因此，必有一词的理解出了问题。查词典，Automobiles除了作“汽车”讲外，还可作“轿车”解。“轿车”与“卡车”是对立概念，可以并列。再看一类似的例子：
---It caused devastation by burrowing and by devouring the herbage which might have maintained millions of sheep and cattle.
它们在地下打洞，吞食掉本来可以维持数百万只牛羊的牧草，从而造成了破坏。
英文论文优秀范文模板 篇九
In recent years, college students find it increasingly difficult to get a job. It sounds strange since young college students are usually intelligent, well-educated phenomenon, aspirant and eager to bring their talent into full play. Then what underlies the strange phenomenon?
近几年，大学生发觉找工作越来越难了。这听起来很奇怪，因为年轻的大学生通常是聪明的，受过良好教育，上进和渴望他们的才华得到充分发挥的。那么，是什么引起这一奇怪现象呢？
There are several reasons for this. To begin with, nowadays college students aim too high. All they want are “good” jobs which could offer good salary, comfortable working conditions, high social status among others. Consequently, most college students are unwilling to accept vacant jobs they consider not “good” enough. Another reason is that there is a big gap between the majors some students study in school and the demands of vacant jobs. So companies think some students are not fit for the jobs.
有很多原因可以解释。首先，现在大学生的要求太高了。他们想要的是能提供较好的薪酬，舒适的工作环境，较高的社会地位的好工作。结果，大部分的大学生都不愿意接受他们认为不够好的空缺职位。另一个原因是一些学生在校学习的专业和空缺职位的需求有很大的差距。所以企业认为有些学生不适合那些工作。
Solution to the problem requires efforts on both the society and the students. The companies should value the students, talent and knowledge while the latter should not merely aim at material gains. They should be down-to–earth in building up their career. Furthermore, they should face their weak points so as to improve themselves and be more competent.
解决这一问题需要社会和学生的共同努力。企业应该看重学生，才能以及知识，而学生不应该只着眼于物质利益。他们应该脚踏实地的建立自己的职业生涯。另外，他们应该面对他们的弱点从而提高自己，使自己更有能力。
三长一短就选短，三短一长就选长。两长两短就选B，参。
2021英语专业好的大学排名情况是怎样的呢？排名前。
英语想要拿到高分，不仅仅需要一个扎实的英语基础知识。
很多同学想知道全国卷高考英语做题时间安排是怎样的？...
天津的英语有第一次和第二次，天津三月高考英语为1次。
有些个别地区英语听力不计入高考总分，就可能有少数省。
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